Issues in Cognitive and Social Ergonomics: From Our House to Bauhaus

Intelligibility is one of the key factors affecting the acceptance and effective use of information systems. In this article, we discuss the ways in which recognition of this factor challenges current system design strategies, as well as current theoretical perspectives and research methodologies. In particular, we claim that in order to understand the problem of system intelligibility, we must focus not only on the cognitive, but also on the social aspects of system use. After considering some of the sources of users’ difficulty in understanding information systems, we propose a new global philosophy for interface design: design for the management of trouble. We discuss the design implications of four mechanisms for improving system intelligibility: (1) useful mental models of the system and its associated subsystems, (2) communicative repair in user-system interaction, (3) new training strategies, and (4) use of the larger social environment as an aid to understanding information systems. We then discuss the possibility of developing intelligent systems capable of providing assistance and feedback related specifically to users’ actions. W e claitn that development of such systems requires understanding the mechaThis is a substantially revised version of a paper, “From Cognitive To Social Ergonomics and Beyond,” that appears as a chapter in the book Usn Cm&redSyrlo fkI&: New Pcrspec~iues on Human-Computt~ In&radon (Norman & Draper, 1986). Authors’ present address: John Sccly Brown and Susan E. Newman, Intelligent Systems Laboratory, Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, 3333 Coyote Hill Road, Palo Alto, CA 94304. 360 BROWN AND NEWMAN